- FAQ's
FAQ's
There are a range of questions that are commonly asked at IB Language A: Language and Literature workshops. These questions often relate to student placement, assessment criteria, differentiation and TOK, just to name a few. We have organized these questions into categories that you can find in the menu on the left. If there are any questions that you feel are not answered in the following pages, please feel free to e-mail us or write a comment on this page below. We also recommend you use the Subject Site's search- Course offering
Course offering
Schools want to accommodate for students' needs and interests by offering courses that prepare them for further education or employment. What reasons should schools consider for offering English A: Language and Literature? We address several aspects of this question in the following set of frequently asked questions. If we can only offer one course in Group 1, should we offer Language and Literature or Literature? Many schools do not have enough students to offer both English A: Language and Literature and English A: Literature. Although it is a difficult choice - Differentiation
Differentiation
Students are all different. Not all work at the same academic level. Not all work at the same pace. Like many IB subjects, it is possible to take English A: Language and Literature at either Higher (HL) and Standard Level (SL). But what does this entail? What does it mean to be a 'Higher Level' or 'Standard Level' student? This page approaches the various aspects of differentiation. How much time should Standard and Higher Level students spend in class? Over two years, 240 hours should be devoted to this course - Language & culture
Language & culture
At the heart of the course are the words 'language' and 'culture'. As common as these words may be, it helps to know what we mean by them. Here are answers to two fundamental questions for the Language A: Language and Literature course. What do we mean by 'language'? Interestingly, there tend to be three different interpretations of the word ‘language’, not all of which are applicable to the English A: Language and Literature course: Some teachers interpret this word to mean language acquisition. Although we want to help student - Placement
Placement
Students, parents, teachers and administrators should all have a role in placing students in the right course. Much of a student's success in the English A: Language and Literature will depend on the decision of placement. Every school presents different circumstances and has different students. How does the English A: Language and Literature course accommodate for students? Here are several questions that relate to placement issues. How rigorous is this course? How does it compare to English A: Literature? English A: Language and Literature is as equally rigorous as English - Reading lists
Reading lists
One of the aims of the English A: Language and Literature course is to instill an appreciation of various cultures and texts. How do we foster a culture where we want to read, learn about cultures and broaden our horizons? Designing an effective curriculum includes choosing the right texts. As schools and students vary, there must be room for flexibility when choosing your texts. Here are some questions that teachers often ask when assembling reading lists. How do I find texts for Parts 1 and 2? As an English A: - Self-taught language
Self-taught language
Language A: Language and Literatue is not available as a 'self-taught language'. A student can take the Langauge A: Literature course as a self-taught language, meaning that the school administers the exams and helps the student find a tutor for the language chosen. Who qualifies for this type of course? There are many aspects to this question, which we tackle here. How proficient must a self-taught language candidate be? The language chosen should be the student’s mother tongue. If students tell you that they are studying a language as hobby - TOK/EE
TOK/EE
We recommend that all teachers read the TOK and Extended Essay guides on the OCC, so that we understand the responsibilities that go along with integrating these into the English A: Language and Literature course. We will take the TOK and Extended Essay questions separately here. How do I integrate TOK into the English A: Language and Literature course? There are many activities that students can do in the English A: Language and Literature classroom that cover epistemological questions. For example, every time you look at persuasive texts, students can - Using the criteria
Using the criteria
It is good practice to use the assessment criteria regularly in class. Students should have quick and easy handouts of the criteria that can be used at any given moment. Even though a form of assessment, such as the Paper 1 exam, is externally assessed, students and teachers can practice applying the criteria. As you practice using the criteria, several questions will most likely come up. Here is a brief overview of frequently asked questions that relate to the use of assessment criteria. How should I apply the criteria? It
- Course offering
- Glossary
Glossary
We have compiled a list of terms and concepts that all relate to the English A: Language and Literature course. They are terms that range from 'free-indirect speech' to 'the Prescribed List of Authors (PLA)'. The glossary provides quick definitions of words that are referred to regularly, so that they can be linked to from multiple pages on this Subject Site. We have tried to keep the definitions concise and succinct. For each definition, at least one example has been included. You can also use the glossary as a starting- Accent
Accent
'Accent' refers to the pronunciation of a language. The word accent is often confused with dialect, which refers to more than a variation of pronunciation. Dialect refers to a unique variety of vocabulary, grammar and pronunciation. In fact, everyone speaks with an accent. Some accents, however, like British or American English, are standardized forms of the languague. Related lessons Pikey English Why speak differently Black English and Disney - Alliteration
Alliteration
Alliteration is the repetition of sound at the beginning of several words. For example, 'strive, strife and style' all begin with the 'st' sound. This cartoon also shows an example of alliteration where the 'a' sound is repeated in every word. Depending on the sound that is repeated, the use of alliteration can have different effects on an audience. Generally speaking, however, alliteration is used to express the lyrical qualities of language. Related lessons P1 SL S1 (Saif Ali Khan) IOC HL S1 (Sassoon) - Allusion
Allusion
An allusion is a form of figurative language in which reference is made to text, event, person or place. By alluding to one of these, the writer relies on the reader's contextual knowledge and makes an implicit comparison between what is presented and what is known. Allusion is a device found in all kinds of texts from ads to novels. Here are some examples of allusion: 'That store is like the forbidden tree in the Garden of Eden.' (Biblical reference, see image) 'I'm not allowed to apply until I've filled - Analogy
Analogy
Analogy is a cognitive process of transferring traits from one thing or idea to another. In propaganda we often see false analogies used as a tool to persuade an audience, where the target is unjustly compared to another source, such as: '9/11 is our generation's Pearl Harbor.' Related lessons Just say no! Cartoons for change Beauty of Photoshop Metaphor and simile - Anti-advertising
Anti-advertising
An anti-ad draws your attention to and makes you aware of the conventions of advertising. In effect anti-ads seems to tell the audience that they are smart enough to see through the tricks played by advertisers. Not only does an anti-ad break the rules of advertising. It shows you how and why they have done this. The notion of anti-advertising started in the 1950s with the 'lemon' ad from Volkswagen. 'Lemon', is another world for a bad car. Calling their cars 'lemons' shocks readers into reading the rest of a - Appeal to authority
Appeal to authority
Appeal to authority is an argumentation technique, in which one refers to a source that claims to have authority. It is an argumentation fallacy because it assumes that authorities or institutions are right. This, however, does not have to be true by definition. Source A says that premise 1 is correct Source A is an authority Therefore A must be correct Appeal to authority is also known as 'argument from authority' or 'argumentum ad verecundiam', An example of appeal to authority can be seen here in this advertisement, where physicians - Appeal to fear
Appeal to fear
In advertisements, speeches or even newpaper articles we see that writers and speakers appeal to their audience's sense of fear. If you can make people scared, then they will believe or buy anything. We see it in advertising, political campaigns and public service announcements. It is an age-old technique used many campaigns from the 'War on Terror' to the 'War on Drugs'. This story by The First Post is critical of an article in The Sun, which appealed heavily to fear and invented a story to scare people. A study of - Bandwagon effect
Bandwagon effect
The bandwagon effect is a propaganda technique that suggests one should do something because everyone else is doing it. It is an argumentation fallacy, because something does not have to be true if everyone is doing it. It comes from the idea of a parade, where happy people go by on bandwagons and people in the crowd have the urge to 'hop on'. The bandwagon effect is an age-old technique used to recruit soldiers for war or sell hamburgers to the masses. This McDonald's ad is a good example of - Bias
Bias
Bias refers to language that supports an ideological position, either explicitly or implicitly. When we see subjectivity in pieces of writing that should be objective, we can claim that they are biased. When we see an imbalance between opposite perspectives in an article, then there is evidence of bias. Good journalism aims to avoid such bias. For example, an article in the New York Times once explored single motherhood, using the following phrase: "It used to be called illegitimacy. Now it is the new normal." This is very suggestive. - Coherence
Coherence
Coherence describes the sytematic connection of ideas in a written piece. Coherence is achieved through the use of linking words and the integration of illustrations. Coherence is what helps an idea become developed in an essay. In a coherent paragraph, one tends to state, illustrate and analyze or explain, usually in that order (see our page on this method for further help). You will notice that the word coherence often appears under the criteria that deal with 'organization' in almost all forms of assessment in this course. Because coherent writing is - Conflict in advertising
Conflict in advertising
Including a conflict situation in an ad helps sell a product or an idea. This advertising technique relies on the audience's interest in seeing the conflict resolved. If you think about how children are intrigued by fights in the schoolyard, then you understand how conflict in advertising draws our attention to a product. Conflict in advertising can sometimes lead to shock advertising if scandalous or controversial, which goes one step further in creating a media-hype and drawing attention to the product or brand. An ad as simple as this one - Connotation
Connotation
A word's connotation is the aura of emotion that is associated with the word through personal experience. It is the opposite of 'denotation', which is what a word literally stands for. For example, the word 'home' may denote a building with a roof and a door. The connotation of 'home' may mean something different for everyone. It may mean a warm fire, a large family and a Christmas tree. It may mean a bachelor pad in a big city. It may stand for a dream or remind one of poverty. All - Crowdsourcing
Crowdsourcing
In a 2006 Wired Magazine article, Jeffo Howe defined 'crowdsourcing' the act of taking a job traditionally performed by a designated employee and outsourcing it to an undefined, generally large group of people in the form of an open call." The best way to understand crowdsourcing is to imagine the following experiment. You have a vase full of marbles and you want to find out how many are in there without taking them out and counting them one by one. Therefore you ask a lot of people. Of all the guesses - Dialect
Dialect
A dialect is a unique and distinguishable combination of vocabulary, pronunciation and syntax. Technically speaking from a linguistic perspective, the only difference between a language and a dialect is that a language is usually standardized. A language is a dialect that has gained a recognized, official status. This admittedly racist ad from the 1950s uses a dialect from the American South that has a unique use of vocabulary, pronunciation and syntax. It reads" "I'se in town honey! Happy days is here! Time fo' dee-licious Aunt Jemima's - made with my - Direct narration
Direct narration
Sometimes in works of fiction, the narrator seems to tell the reader what to think. Interpretations of the events and characters are made for the reader. Take for example this passage from Emma by Jane Austen. “Emma Woodhouse, handsome, clever, and rich, with a comfortable home and happy disposition, seemed to unite some of the best blessing of existence; and had lived nearly twenty-one years in the world with very little to distress or vex her." The narrator of this text is talking to us directly and telling us what - Direct speech
Direct speech
There are several ways to tell a story. Writers can choose to let the characters do all of the talking or they can summarize what their characters say for the reader. The first case is known as direct speech. The second case is known as reported speech. In this passage from Alice in Wonderland, you can see examples of direct speech. The Caterpillar and Alice looked at each other for some time in silence: at last the Caterpillar took the hookah out of its mouth, and addressed her in a - Equivocation
Equivocation
Equivocation is when a word is used in two different senses in an argument. Take for example the following syllogism: A hamburger is better than nothing Nothing is better than good health Therefore a hamburger is better than good health The word 'nothing' has two meanings. In the first line it means the absence of something. In the second line it refers to a range of things, as in: 'of all the good things in life, nothing is better than good health.' This accounts for why the conclusion sounds so - Ethos
Ethos
In Greek the term 'ethos' means 'character'. It can be used to describe the character of an audience, nation or community. For example, one can speak of the 'American ethos' as the characteristics that define American culture. A US presidential candidate would have to speak to the ethos of this nation and culture in order to win votes. Understanding ethos is important to understanding speech writing. As we study the rhetorical devices of speakers, we want to ask ourselves how the speaker appeals to the ethos of his or her - Euphemism
Euphemism
'Euphemism' is a word or phrase that makes something sound better than it actually is. Euphemisms can be found in political speeches, advertsing campaigns or everyday conversation. For example, instead of saying someone 'died', we say they 'passed away'. Euphemisms are related to censorship, in the sense that they only tell half-truths and distort reality. Related lesson Euphemisms - First-person point-of-view
First-person point-of-view
When a narrator is included in his or her story, we refer to a form known as the first-person point-of-view. It is the 'I' perspective. This is not to say that the first-person narrator is always the main character of the story, even though this is often the case. Sometimes the narrator observes the main character from a close distance. This is called observer narration, which can be seen in the following passage from The Great Gatsby. That’s my Middle West . . . the street lamps and sleigh bells - Formalism
Formalism
Formalism is a school of literary criticism that looks at texts at face value, without biographical, historical or contextual considerations. At the heart of formalism is this notion that a text can have inherent meaning. This meaning is constructed through the use of language, i.e. stylistic or structural features. According to the school of formalism, it is up to the reader to deconstruct or unpack the meaning of texts by identifying the use of these features. There are two branches of formalism: the Russian formalists and the New Critics. The - Free indirect speech
Free indirect speech
When stories are told in the third person, they are usually told in the third-person omniscient or third-person limited point-of-view. In the latter variety we see that the narrator shows us the thoughts and actions of one character, usually the main character. Sometimes the narrator will state these thoughts explicitly. For example: "Madam Bovary thought to herself, 'how nice it would be to have son!' She considered how fortunate boys were to have so many opportunities." This style of writing is a combination of direct speech and reported speech. But - Gatekeeper
Gatekeeper
As we explore the role of the Internet, as a medium that is changing our lives, we come across in an important term: the gatekeeper. A gatekeeper is a person who has access to a particular medium and can disseminate ideas with it. One can think of an editor at a publishing house as a gatekeeper; one who determines who may, or may not publish. Gatekeepers seem to hold the key to publishing. The term is often used when talking about how the Internet has democratized our world, for better - Generalizations
Generalizations
As we study argumentation and propaganda techniques, we come across hasty generalizations. Generalization occurs when large conclusions are drawn from a few instances. It is the weakness of inductive reasoning. For example if premise A reads, 'our school's bandwidth is slow,' and premise B reads, 'we don't have anything sweet in the vending machines,' then the conclusion, 'our school sucks,' would be a generalization.To learn more about reasoning check out our page on ads and syllogisms under the TOK section of this Subject Site. Related lessons Just say no Ads - Idiolect
Idiolect
Idiolect refers to the way in which we all speak an individual and unique variety of a language. Some may be so bold as to say that there are as many Englishes as there are English speakers. While this may be an exaggeration, it illustrates the idea that pronunciation, idiom (word choice) and syntax are all expressions of a unique identity. Because everyone's identity is influenced by a range of unique, cultural and contextual factors, people end up speaking unique varieties of English. In the play Pygmalion, a linguist by - Imagery
Imagery
Imagery is a stylistic device, which uses language to appeal to the reader's senses of sight, sound, smell, taste or touch. It is sometimes used as a form of analogy, comparing an abstract idea to a concrete experience. Its aim is to paint a picture in the mind of the reader and bring a text 'to life'. This engages the reader further and makes him/her want to read on. To practice working with imagery, you can take a photograph (like the one you see here) and explain it to another - Indirect narration
Indirect narration
When a narrator shows the readers the events of a story without telling us how to interpret them, we can speak of indirect narration. It is the opposite of direct narration, where the narrator tells the reader how to interpret events. Here is an example of indirect narration from Hills Like White Elephants by Ernest Hemmingway. The woman came out through the curtains with two glasses of beer and put them down on the damp felt pads. "The train comes in five minutes," she said. "What did she say?" asked - Irony
Irony
Irony is a literary or stylistic device in which one states something that is in discordance with what is expected. In brief, irony is when someone says one thing but means something else. An understanding of irony depends entirely on an understanding of context. If it is raining and you say, 'nice weather we're having, don't you think?' then there is evidence of irony. Without the context, i.e. rain, the meaning is different. There are several forms of irony. The example above is a form of verbal irony. Furthermore it - Juxtaposition
Juxtaposition
Juxtaposition is the placement of two opposite ideas in close proximity. These opposite ideas can be expressed through words or images, such as the one presented here, where an old man in the foreground juxtaposes the image of young woman in the background. Juxtaposition is an important concept for analyzing all texts, both literary and non-literary. When an author includes such opposites in a text, he or she is drawing our attention to an inherent tension or conflict. Related lessons HIV and taboos MTV Switch campaign P1 HL S3 (baby - Language
Language
At the heart of the Language A: Language and literature course is the term 'language'. What exactly though does 'language' mean? A language is a system of communication that is mutually intelligible among all members of a community. How is this different from a dialect? In fact, all languages are dialects. A dialect gains 'language' status when it gains official acceptance as the standard to which all other varieties are compared. This is a rather linguistic approach to defining 'language'. In the Language A: Language and Literature course, you will - Logos
Logos
For our purposes, 'logos' is the appeal to a reader or listener's sense of logic. 'How do your arguments convince me to take action?' This is the kind of question that an audience asks when listening to a speech or reading a text. This definition comes from the tradition of analyzing rhetoric, as founded by the Greek philosopher Aristotle. In this tradition, logos is one of three main rhetorical appeals, together with pathos and ethos, which are appeals to the sense of emotion and authority respectively. Appealing to a sense of - Long tail marketing
Long tail marketing
As the Internet brings people together through social networking and large databases (super crunching), smaller, niche markets are being targeted more effectively by advertisers. These niche markets are part of what Chris Anderson, editor of Wired magazine, calls 'the long tail'. The long tail is the opposite of the 'head' of the market. Because of the limitations of traditional media, publishers, record companies and manufacturers have traditionally only targeted the head of the market, meaning they advertise best-sellers, pop-chart hits and Barbie dolls for example. However, the total sales of - Mash up
Mash up
Mash ups are online texts, usually short films, that copy content from an original source and alter it to some extent to give it new meaning. These are texts that borrow from and build on other texts. They intend to make their audience laugh, as they compare one concept to another through allusion or analogy. They rely on contextual knowledge and a mutual understanding of the original text. Furthermore, they are often the result of copyright infringement. Hitler's angry reaction to the iPad Sadiesmithereens (YouTube) 2010 Related lessons Vote different - Metaphor
Metaphor
Metaphor is the comparison of two concepts through language, often done by using the verb 'to be'. Metaphor is often seen as a literary device used by poets. Metaphors, however, can be found in every day speech and images. Take for example this image, which is an advertisement for a car, the Volvo 850. It compares the car to an egg carton. We assume they share properties. They are both vehicles that protect their content securely. In every day speech, people say things like one is 'a beacon of knowledge,' - Metonymy
Metonymy
Metonymy is the act of referring to a concept not by its name, but by something intimately associated with it. For example when journalists refer to "Washington's response," they mean the political response of the United States. Similarly we see in this example "Palace fury at D-day snub to Queen." Naturally the palace itself is not furious, but it is a symbol that represents the royal family. Metonymy is closely related to, but should not be confused with synecdoche, which is where one part of something is used to refer - Newsworthiness
Newsworthiness
What makes a story newsworthy? Every editor-in-chief has a different opinion on this matter. Generally speaking however, there seem to be three reasons why a story is deemed 'newsworthy'. Although they do not all pertain to all stories, at least one aspect usually pertains to every story. Negative - 'If it bleeds, it leads', as the saying goes in the media world. Stories about disasters, disease and disappointment tend to sell well. Relevance - If people are affected by events then they are more likely to read about them. A - Notifications
Notifications
While the concept of notifications may seem simple, it is very important in our efforts to understand the type of text known as 'website'. In traditional media, if you want to find out something, such as a job vacancy, you must go to it physically. You open the newspaper and looking for vacancies that suit your career, filtering through the ones that do not. Nowadays however, people are subscribing to streams of information through RSS feeds (Really Simple Syndication). This RSS feed icon (see image) appears on many websites, below - Onomatopoeia
Onomatopoeia
Onomatopoeia is a stylistc device that refers to words that sound like what they represent. 'Swish' or 'snap' are good examples of onomatopoeia. The very sound of these words imitates the actions that they represent. Related lessons P1 Sample 2 - PLA
PLA
The Prescribed List of Authors, also known as PLA, is a document published on the Online Curriculum Centre (OCC). It contains the names of authors (not the titles of works) in categories of genre. Teachers select texts written by these authors on this list for the required Part 3 and 4 reading. For Part 3, one text is selected from the PLA at HL (and none at SL). For Part 4, all texts must be selected from this list, meaning two texts for SL and three texts for HL. The - PLT
PLT
The Prescribed Literature in Translation (PLT) is an official list of literature published by the IB on the Online Curriculum Centre (OCC). For the English A: Language and Literature course, both Standard Level and Higher Level students must read one work from this list to meet part of their Part 3 requirement. You will notice that the PLT is text specific, meaning that you cannot read anything by an author that appears on this list. You must read the work(s) indicated. Furthermore, you may not read a work from the - Pathos
Pathos
When speakers appeal to one's sense of emotion, they are using pathos. 'Why should I care about what you have to say?' This is the kind of question on an audience's mind when listening to a speech or reading a persuasive text. You can find the same semantic root of pathos in similar, related words such as 'sympathy' or 'pathetic'. Rhetorical questions, emotive language and sensationalism appeal to our sense of pathos. Pathos is one of three rhetorical appeals, traditionally studied in speech writing. This tradition, founded by Aristotle, also includes ethos - Pay-per-click
Pay-per-click
Many websites allow 'sponsors' or advertisers to place ads on their website as a means of generating revenue. Advertisements are often related to the content of the websites which host them, as search engines such as Google scan the site for relevant words. These ads are called 'pay-per-click' because they only generate revenue for the host website once the user has clicked on the link or the ad. Google 'adwords' are also very relevant here. We should understand that words are for sale on the Internet. Google auctions off words - Personalization
Personalization
As we deconstruct websites and understand how they target specific audiences, it is important to see how many sites rely on personalizaton. Creating an account, logging on or editing a profile page are just several ways sites engage users. Many website have a separate address once you have logged on, usually starting with 'my...'. These tools activate users and allow them to contribute to the growing database of users' history and behavior. Futhermore the personalization tools enable users to generate content (also known as user-generated content or UGC). Naturally Facebook - Personification
Personification
Personification is a stylistic device where inanimate objects are given human qualities. It is a form of analogy, where one thing is compared to another thing (or person). This allows the reader to think differently about the characteristics or traits of the object or person. A good example is this Virgin Radio ad with the copy that reads: 'Give your radio a reason to live.' The radio is compared to a suicidal person. It looks sad and lonely on the edge of the platform, ready to jump before the metro - Problem / solution technique
Problem / solution technique
If you can convince someone that they have a problem, you can sell them a solution. This is the kind of persuasive technique used by advertisers and politicians, known as the problem / solution technique. If an audience can identify with one characteristic of the problem, then they can be persuaded to believe that they must buy into the solution. This technique can be found in the Tylenol ad opposite. Many people find air travel a stressful experience. If you can identify with the stress and headache that this passenger - Reported speech
Reported speech
There is more than one way to tell a story. Sometimes the narrator of a story summarizes what other characters say. We call this style of speech, reported speech or indirect speech. It looks like this: The President said that NAFTA would eventually be a boon to small businesses in both countries. Professor Villa told her students the textbooks were not yet in the bookstore. The opposite of reported speech is direct speech, where you need quotation marks. Such as: The President said, "NAFTA will eventually be a boon to - Second-person point-of-view
Second-person point-of-view
The second-person point-of-view makes use of the pronoun 'you'. It targets the reader directly, by referring to 'you'. You can find the second-person point-of-view in recipes, textbooks, advertisements or campaigns like this famous one. 'Uncle Sam' was used to recruit soldiers for the War of 1812 in the United States of Amercia. Related lessons HIV and taboos Narrative technique - Sensationalism
Sensationalism
Sensationalism refers to language that appeals to emotions. It exaggerates, over-hypes and attracts attention to controversy. This headline from offers an example of sensationalism: "Palace Furty At D-Day Snub to Queen." Words such as 'snub' evoke an emotional response of anger. Related lessons Sensationalism Biased headlines Newsworthiness - Setting
Setting
The setting of a story is more than where it takes place, geographically, and when it takes place, temporally. When discussing setting as a literary technique, we often look at it in relation to its main characters. After all, setting creates a set of expectations for the reader and an environment for its characters. We usually use these terms when talking about setting and characters: Mirror - The setting can reflect the overall mood of the story, and it can reflect the personality of the characters in the story. Mould - The - Shock advertising
Shock advertising
Shock advertising is used to gain attention. If an advertisement is controversial, then it gains free publicity through the press and on blogs. Even though this kind of publicity can be negative, it is still publicity nonetheless. Shock advertising leads to brand awareness and an eventual rise in sales. Many companies that use shock advertising do not even show their product. The interest is solely on creating a very memorable impact on their audience. Studies show that shock advertising can be effective for increasing brand awareness and sales (see Buyology - Simile
Simile
Simile is the comparison of two things, using the words 'like' or 'as'. It is similar to, but different from, metaphor which compares two things without the use of such words such as 'like' or 'as'. A famous example is found in the movie Forest Gump: "Life is like a box of chocolates. You never know what you're going to get." Related lessons Metaphor and simile - Slang
Slang
'Slang' refers to a deviation in language use, be it vocabulary or expressions, from the standardized form of a particular language. Technically speaking from a linguistic point of view, the word is not recognized. From a social point of view, we often view slang as a 'lesser' variety of language use, often associated with dialects or accents. Slang often defines who the members are of an 'in-crowd'. It is a social marker. Related lessons Pikey English Social languages Black English and Disney - Slogan
Slogan
A slogan is a phrase used in a political or commercial campaign repeatedly. Slogans are meant to be simple, as they express a shared purpose or idea. 'Think Different' has been Apple's slogan for decades. Related lessons Just say no! - Social networking
Social networking
Although many people use social networking websites daily, we rarely stop to define the term or ponder its significance to our lives. A social network describes a structure of individuals and their interdependence on each other, be it through friendship, economics or interests. Social networks on the Internet, such as Linkedin and Facebook enable us to see visual representations of these relationships so that we can make better decision, find lost friends or collaborate on projects with strangers. Along with new text types in the digital age, come new dynamics - Super crunching
Super crunching
The term 'super crunchers' is the title of a book by Ian Ayres (picture). It refers to the phenomenon of how large databases are helping us make decisions everyday, especially on the Internet. For example, on Amazon, there is a function called 'Customers who bought this item also bought this item'. It keeps a record of the purchasing history of consumers and uses it to target new customrers. You can see evidence of super crunching on a lot of different types of websites from online radio stations to dating sites. - Synecdoche
Synecdoche
Synecdoche is a stylistic device. It is the act of referring to an entity by one of its parts. For example, if you refer to your car as your 'wheels', you are using synecdoche. 'All hands on deck!' is another example. Syndecdoche is closely related to but different from metonymy, where a concept is referred to by something closely - Testimonial
Testimonial
If someone tells you about a personal experience with a product, then you are likely to believe that person. If that 'someone' is a celebrity, you may be even more likely to buy a product that he or she is promoting. This kind of story about a personal experience is known as a 'testimonial'. Testimonials are used in advertising and political campaigns to appeal to the audience's sense of ethos, i.e. that which gives someone credit or a mandate. If a third, independent party has approved of a product or idea through - Textuality
Textuality
When we refer to 'textuality' we mean the characteristics that define a text. What makes a speech a speech? What makes a blog a blog? What are the inherent structures that define a text? This is what we are interested in when studying textuality. The term relates to all parts of the course. In Part 1, for example, we discuss a great varieties of texts. In Part 2 we discuss how the medium affects the message. In the literary parts of the course we look at the textuality of literary - Use of celebrities
Use of celebrities
In advertisements, public service announcements and propaganda, we often see the use of celebrities to try to sell us an idea or product. It is an age-old technique in the world of advertising and marketing. Whether or not it works effectively remains debated. This technique relies on the premise that people want to be like the celebrities. If the celebrities endorse a product then it must be good. This is the line of logic that follows. This ad uses David Beckham to sell milk. The target audience is supposed to - Viral
Viral
The term 'viral' is a combination of two words 'commercial' and 'virus'. It is a commercial that travels like a virus from friend to friend, via social networks and e-mail. These videos usually involve humor, though this is not always a defining trait. They may be produced by large corporations or individuals., such as these two famous virals 'The Force', by Volkswagon, and the Obama Girl video, by Barely Political. Related lessons The Internet
- Accent
- Secondary sources
Secondary sources
In class it is important to know when we are treating texts as primary or secondary sources. There are many textbooks, documentaries and websites that help us make sense of the texts we come across in our daily lives and in the classroom. These secondary sources enrich our understanding of language and literature. The lists of secondary sources on the following pages should help you place primary sources into the contexts of the fields in which they are studied. For example, the documentary Outfoxed is a secondary source that comments- Textbooks
Textbooks
There are several textbooks on English A: Language and Literature. Like this website, textbooks offer good starting points. They can instigate classroom discussion, suggest assessment ideas and enlighten you on the theoretical underpinnings of the course. Here is an overview of what is on the market. English Language and Literature for the IB Diploma (Cambridge University Press) offers a good starting point for students and teachers. The author of this Subject Site cannot comment without some degree of bias. Of all the textbooks sold for this course, this one currently has - Websites
Websites
While this Subject Site aims to be the best website for the English A: Language and Literature, you may find links to external sites that offer a range of resources that enrich your classroom experiences. We have provided a short list of essential websites that tie in well to this course. The British Library has an excellent website for teachers and students. One part, called 'Language and Literature', offers a wealth of resources for Part 1. There is even a part called 'Text and Context' in which you can look
- Textbooks
- Text types
Text types
The Language A: Language and Literature guide suggests we study a range of text types. 'Deconstructing texts', as we call it, is one way of exploring the structural conventions of various text types. In this section we ask ourselves: "What kinds of features contribute to the text's structure?" The samples of texts given on these pages could be considered archetypical. In other words, they have many of the defining features of a particular text type. If you are preparing a written task 1, consult these pages to ensure that your text contains- Essays
Essays
The term 'essay' is used in two different senses: an academic piece of writing, as a form of assessment a literary piece of non-fiction that explores an idea or theme You may recognize the first as part of your English A: Language and Literature course. For the sake of this lesson, however, we will focus on the second. If you are exploring an essay for Parts 3 or 4, you will want to know some of their defining characteristics. This lesson presents three sample essays. What do they all have - Memoir
Memoir
As you read a varity of text you may be intrigued by memoirs. For the written task 1, memoirs work very well. You may decide to write the memoirs of a character from a literary work that you read for Part 3 or 4. You may also come across a memoir or autobiographical piece on the Paper 1 exam. For these reasons, it is good to familiarize yourself with the conventions of memoir writing. Here are two samples of memoirs, several discussion quesiton and a list of defining characteristics. Defining characteristics Memoirs - Opinion column
Opinion column
Newspapers and magazines often have columnists who write for them. Generally speaking newspapers or magazines want there to be a cult of personality surrounding these columnists to generate good sales and brand loyalty. Such is the case with Thomas Friedman of the New York Times (picture). Columnists may be very outspoken in their opinions. Nevertheless, their opinions are in tune with the readership of a particular magazine or newspaper. Furthermore, their opinions are newsworthy, meaning that they both comment on the hot topics of the day, and their opinions are - Short story
Short story
The following text, 'Sitting' by H.E. Francis, is presented here as a starting point for understanding fiction. While this short story contains many of the common elements of fiction, it also has a few unconventional twists. Read the story and try to identify all of the defining characteristics of fiction that you see below. Defining characteristics Short ficiton Exposition - How does the story begin? How are the characters introduced? Who is the narrator? In Sitting we quickly establish that the story is told from 'his' perspective, that is to say from the - Speech
Speech
There are as many different kinds of speeches as there are audiences. Nevertheless, there are some traits that all speeches have in common, despite their different audiences. Before we look at these defining characteristics below, it is important to note that there are three over arching principles that govern speech writing in general. The ancient Greeks referred to them as ethos, pathos and logos. Ethos - 'What gives you the authority to speak before me today?' Pathos - 'Why should I care, emotionally, about what you are saying?' Logos - - Tabloid
Tabloid
We often associate tabloid newspapers with sensationalism, low-brow culture and big images. Although these associations are for the most part correct, technically the term 'tabloid' refers to the actual size of the newspaper, generally narrower than a broadsheet and stapled together. Having said this, many broadsheets, or classier newspapers, have chosen for the tabloid format, because it is easier for reading on public transportation. There is a debate today that questions whether you can have great quality on a small format. This lesson examines the defining characteristics of tabloid
- Essays
- Tool kit
Tool kit
There are many tools to facilitate learning in the English A: Language and Literature classroom. You may find some of these useful for preparing presentations, collaborating with classmates or organizing your ideas. Bubbl.us is a tool that allows you to build mind maps (or spider diagrams) online. It is very user friendly, so that you can build a mind map as you brainstorm in the classroom and project it for all to see. Easybib allows you to build an online bibliography. Not only does it help you organize your cited
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| Glossary | Secondary sources |
| Textbooks | Speech |
| Ethos | FAQ's |
| Direct speech | Sensationalism |
| Tool kit | Equivocation |
| Course offering | TOK/EE |
| Using the criteria | Text types |
Summary
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Selected Pages
Opinion column - free
Newspapers and magazines often have columnists who write for them. Generally speaking newspapers or magazines want there to be a cult of personality surrounding these columnists to generate good sales and brand... more»
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Students, parents, teachers and administrators should all have a role in placing students in the right course. Much of a student's success in the English A: Language and Literature will depend on... more»
Secondary sources - free
In class it is important to know when we are treating texts as primary or secondary sources. There are many textbooks, documentaries and websites that help us make sense of the texts... more»
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When speakers appeal to one's sense of emotion, they are using pathos. 'Why should I care about what you have to say?' This is the kind of question on an audience's mind when... more»
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The Prescribed Literature in Translation (PLT) is an official list of literature published by the IB on the Online Curriculum Centre (OCC). For the English A: Language and Literature course, both Standard... more»
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The Prescribed List of Authors, also known as PLA, is a document published on the Online Curriculum Centre (OCC). It contains the names of authors (not the titles of works) in categories... more»
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